1990
SEAMEO RECSAM)
SHINOHARA, Fumihiko
Associate Professor
Tokyo Gakugei University
Koganei-shi, Tokyo 184 Japan
(November 1990)
(1990
SEAMEO RECSAM)
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Junior High School Science Education: Present Status
and Issues
3. Principles Underlying the Revision of Junior High School
Science Education
4. Objectives and Contents of New Junior High School Course
of Study
5. Conclusion
References
The Ministry of Education issued a revised Course of Study on March 15,
1989. For junior high schools, measures have been provided to facilitate
the transition to the new curriculum, which will be implemented starting
from the 1993 school year. In the meantime, new textbooks are to be edited
during 1990, textbook certification will be done in 1991 and the textbooks
to be used will be selected in 1992. These steps will pave the way for
the full-scale adoption of the new curriculum in April 1993 based on the
revised Course of Study.
Serving as the standard framework for the educational curriculum, the Course
of Study has been revised approximately every ten years. Since the latest
revision is to be enforced in 1993, it will form the basis of the education
that is offered at the beginning of the 21st century.
This recent revision of the Course of Study is based on a report submitted
to the Ministry of Education by the Education Curriculum Council in December
1987. The fundamental idea underlying the Course of Study is to develop
the foundations for lifelong learning, taking into account the transformation
of students' lifestyles and awareness that will likely occur in conjunction
with changes in society in the coming years. The basic aim of the Course
of Study is to foster the development of sensitive, well-rounded individuals
who will be capable of coping with changes in society by themselves in
the coming 21st century.
The main features of the latest revision can be summed up in the following
four points;
(1) Improvement of education for the mind
All educational activities will seek to develop well- rounded, resolute
and courageous individuals and will be designed to match the various stages
of development of students and the particular characteristics of each academic
subject.
(2) Emphasis on the basics and fundamentals and encouragement of personalized education
The fundamental skills and knowledge required by the nation will be emphasized
and education that maximizes individual potential will be strengthened
and improved. At the same time, the consistency of the educational content
at each school level will be improved.
(3) Development of self-education capability
Emphasis is to be placed on developing the ability to cope independently
with changes in society and on fostering the basis of originality. In addition,
a strong desire to educate oneself is to be fostered.
(4) Fostering of respect for culture and tradition and of international understanding
Emphasis is to be placed on fostering an attitude of respect for Japanese culture and traditions. A deeper understanding of the cultures and histories of other nations will also be cultivated in order to develop a disposition for living in an international society.
The following discussion will focus on the revised Course of Study for
junior high school science education, while keeping in mind the overall
aims of this latest revision of the basic framework for the educational
curriculum.
2. Junior High School Science Education: Present Status and Issues
The Ministry of Education provides junior high school teachers with guidance
through various seminars and training courses, including the Junior High
School Curriculum Seminar, Education Research and Presentation Conference,
Science Research Council of the Education Center, and Liaison Council for
Science Teachers. In addition, it also gathers information on the actual
status of science education carried out in the classroom. That information
is obtained from reports written from various perspectives and from research
group discussions, among other sources.
Several years ago the Ministry of Education surveyed the way in which the
current curriculum was being implemented and obtained a great deal of objective
data on many different aspects of the present system. The International
Education Association has also conducted surveys on science education around
the world. The results of its second survey presented an international
comparison of education in different countries. The survey results indicated
the areas where science education in Japan was outstanding as well as its
deficiencies.
One observation that has been made on the basis of these different analyses
of science education in junior high schools in Japan today is that science
instruction is not being carried out from the standpoint of learning directly
from natural things and phenomena. Instead, there is tendency for instruction
to be conducted as a one-way transmission of knowledge from the teacher
to the students. As a result, students invariably tend to rely excessively
on a passive form of learning and they are not necessarily acquiring the
ability to investigate nature through self-initiated inquiries into natural
phenomena nor are they developing a positive attitude toward the study
of nature.
Formal school education is strongly expected to cultivate abilities for
coping adequately with changes in society, including the ongoing progress
of science and technology and the advance of information technology. This
is just one reason why steps should be taken to improve and upgrade the
substance of education along with the teaching and learning methods that
are used. In the area of science instruction, the aim should be to foster
the development of scientific thought, judgment and power of expression.
This can be accomplished by cultivating a desire for self-education and
by motivating students to undertake self- initiated activities to study
and investigate natural things and phenomena.
In connection with the latest revision of the contents of science education
in junior high schools, it has been pointed out that more attention should
be paid to the relationship between nature and students' everyday life
and things in their immediate surroundings; further, there is a need to
foster a stronger interest in, intellectual excitement over and curiosity
about natural things and phenomena. One aspect of this observation is that
this viewpoint should be specifically incorporated in the improvements
made to the contents of the Course of Study. Another important aspect is
that teaching students about the relationship between nature and their
everyday lives should promote a better understanding of natural phenomena.
This will help to improve their understanding of abstract and hard-to-
understand scientific facts when they are presented in the classroom.
3. Principles Underlying the Revision of Junior High School Science Education
With the foregoing discussion as introductory background, this section
will talk about the principles underlying the revision of the Course of
Study for junior high school science education.
(1)Natural things and phenomena were treated in terms of the traditional
disciplines of chemistry, physics, biology and physical geography. The
contents of science education have been organized by taking into account
such factors as the stages of development of students, their aptitude for
learning, and the consistency of instruction at each educational level.
(2)Greater attention was paid to the selection, consolidation and organization
of the contents of the Course of Study. This was done to foster the development
of scientific perspectives and powers of thought by providing sufficient
latitude for investigating nature through direct personal experience in
the form of observation and experimentation.
In this connection, the contents were thoroughly screened, condensed and
organized, taking into account the findings revealed by the Ministry of
Education's earlier survey which had examined the actual implementation
of the present curriculum in the classroom. The contents were selected
and organized with an eye toward enabling students to acquire the abilities
and desire to investigate nature scientifically and to form basic scientific
concepts through observation, experimentation and inquiry into natural
phenomena.
Compared with the present Course of Study, subsection 3 of the revision
concerning "Treatment of Contents" contains a more detailed description
of restrictions and limitations on the scope of subject material to be
presented. This step was taken to prevent the contents of textbooks from
becoming overly complicated or a mere arrangement of wide-ranging factual
information. In the case of a substantive subject like science, textbooks
are apt to contain detailed factual descriptions rather than explanations
of the methods used in studying nature through observation and experimentation.
Thus, there is a tendency for instruction to become a one-way transmission
of this factual knowledge by the teacher and passive memorization by the
students. The "Treatment of Contents" has been described in detail
to avoid this type of instruction.
(3)Instruction should not be conducted through an overreliance on the transmission
of factual information; rather, it should foster the development of the
students' abilities and desire to pursue solutions to problems enthusiastically.
To make this possible, the Course of Study has been organized such that
the relationship between the subject matter and activities for studying
nature through observation and experimentation is clearly described in
subsection 2 entitled "Contents."
In this connection, it was thought that greater emphasis should be placed
on observation and experimentation. The aim was to foster the development
of the students' capability for scientific thought, judgment and power
of expression through self-initiated inquiries using the methods of observation
and experimentation. Various innovative approaches to describing the subsection
dealing with "Contents" were considered in order to accomplish
this aim.
The present Course of Study mentions that the "objectives" of
science education are to be attained "through observation and experimentation."
The report submitted to the Ministry of Education in conjunction with the
present Course of Study also noted the importance of learning through direct
contact with natural things and phenomena. However, the survey on the actual
implementation of the curriculum revealed that the situation at schools
was not necessarily satisfactory with respect to active participation by
the students in learning about nature through observation and experimentation.
In view of this situation, an effort was made to describe the "Minor
Topics" in the "Contents" subsection of the new Course of
Study in such a way as to encourage more vigorous inquiries and investigations
by the students. This was done, for example, by indicating that "the
rules governing .... should be found by conducting observations and experiments
concerning ...." Activities for studying nature through observation
and experimentation have been described in the "Contents" subsection
in such a way that they are linked to the subject matter of science education.
In organizing the contents in this manner it was felt that it would not
be suitable to describe the specific procedures for conducting observations
and experiments or the materials and tools to be used, as the Course of
Study is intended to serve only as the basic framework of the curriculum.
Therefore, the description in the "Contents" subsection only
states that observations, experiments and other investigative studies should
be conducted and that the students' abilities and desire to study nature
should be fostered through such inquiries and investigations. The description
emphasizes the necessity of active participation by the students in acquiring
knowledge and in forming intellectual concepts.
(4)The contents have been organized with greater emphasis placed on the
connections between familiar natural things and phenomena and everyday
life, as well as on the results and benefits of science. This was done
to make the subject matter of science education more appealing and interesting
to the students.
These considerations also received substantial emphasis in the present
Course of Study. In order to bring the subject matter of junior high school
science education closer to the students, care was taken to relate the
contents of the new Course of Study to things familiar to the students
in their immediate surroundings. The first area of study focuses on such
phenomena as light, sound and heat. Subject matter dealing with information
technology, new materials and energy has been included under a section
on the progress of science and technology and human life.
The contents in the second area of study have been organized so as to emphasize
the connections between natural phenomena and people's everyday lives.
The subject matter covered here includes familiar plants, meteorological
observation and measurement, heredity and evolution.
One aspect of this emphasis given to the connections with everyday life
is that items pertaining to these relationships should be incorporated
in the contents of the Course of Study. Another aspect is that teachers
should try to relate the subject matter of science education to things
in everyday life in the process of teaching science to their students in
the classroom.
(5)Computers should be used as needed in teaching students about science.
An attempt was made to clearly identify the role of computers in science
education in the future and to provide for ways in which computers can
be utilized suitably and positively in science instruction.
In using computers in science education, thorough consideration should
be given to the aims set for science instruction and the relationship computers
have with the attainment of those aims. The use of computers should be
based on a clear understanding of these points.
Let us assume that the objectives of science education are to emphasize
the importance of observation and experimentation, to encourage self-initiated
inquiry and investigation by the students, and to foster independent and
creative learning activities. It is necessary to examine the roles that
computers can play in attaining each of these objectives and the ways in
which computers can support the study of science.
The use of computers is described in the following way in the new Course
of Study for junior high school science education. "Consideration
should be given to the effective use of computers as needed in teaching
each area of study, such as in searching for and retrieving information
during the course of observation and experimentation, in processing experimental
data or in performing experimental measurements." (Section 3. Preparation
of Teaching Plans and Treatment of Contents.)
The salient points of this description include mention of the use of computers
and also the clear distinction made regarding the ways in which they are
to be used. This can also be understood from the fact that the description
does not specifically state that "the use of computers and other related
equipment is to be promoted in the course of teaching science."
The course of observation and experimentation that is mentioned here means
the process of study per se. It refers to the study procedure which involves
the identification of a problem, the gathering and processing of information,
and the forming of general conclusions based on the results.
Various examples can be cited in connection with information searches and
retrieval. These include a search for issues that are to be resolved in
conducting research on a particular theme, retrieval of educational materials
and tools to be used in conducting an observation or experiment, referencing
of information on the properties of chemicals or chemical substances, retrieval
of information regarding permanent stars or planets of the universe, and
retrieval of classifications of animals, plants, minerals and rocks. In
these examples, it is intended that computers will be used as an actual
tool for supporting the study activities initiated by the students on their
own accord.
The capabilities of computers lend themselves well to such tasks as the
processing of experimental data or the creation of graphs. By inputting
and processing data measured in an experiment and then outputting the results
in the form of a graph, students should be better able to discover the
relevant laws of nature and this, in turn, should lead to further study
of new things.
In carrying out experimental measurements, it is important that the students
make their own sensors for detecting light, temperature, sound, pressure
and other phenomena. By linking these sensors to a computer and following
the changes in the measured data in real time during the course of an experiment,
students will be able to grasp changes in phenomena quantitatively. It
is anticipated that this will encourage further study which will lead to
the discovery of still other natural laws.
It should be noted that the description given in the Course of Study concerning
the use of computers in teaching science does not suggest such things as
drills, tutorials or simulations. Many of the simulation software programs
seen nowadays are in fact being used as substitutes for observation and
experimentation. It would be a grave situation if there were teachers who
are using this simulation software because they attach little importance
to observation and experimentation as forms of direct experience.
The following are examples of computer software for use in science education
which are in accord with the principles underlying the latest revision
of the Course of Study. It is hoped that these tools will be developed
and used in the future.
Development of Educational Software in Line with the Newly Revised Course of Study
1) Information retrieval
Retrieval of plant classifications (as a method of learning different types of plants)
Retrieval of animal classifications (types of birds, fishes, etc.)
Retrieval of rock and mineral classifications
Retrieval of matter classifications (properties, solubility, solids, liquids,
gases, etc.)
2) Processing, tabulation and graphic representation of experimental data
Totaling and processing of experimental data
Processing and graphic representation of experimental data (software for
creating scientific graphs)
3) Experimental measurements and tools in science education
Sensors, A/D adapters, and other tools made by students themselves
Experimental measurement of the melting point of naphthalene and paradichlorobenzene
Experiments on adiabatic expansion
Measurement of heat release in neutralized titration
Measurement of electrical conductivity in neutralized titration
Measurement of heat generated by passage of an electrical current
Experiments concerning Ohm's law
Dynamic experiments involving light and sensors
4) Continuous recording of fixed point observations
Continuous measurement of changes in temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity over a set period of time
Continuous measurement of changes in wind direction and velocity over a set period of time
Continuous measurement of rainfall over a set period of time
5) Computer communications
Exchanges of information on teaching materials, methods of instruction and natural environment survey results
Exchanges of information on locations for collecting live specimens for
educational use, places where specimens are raised or kept and best ways
of obtaining experimental specimens for educational use
(6)In cases where the number of hours of instruction set for third year
students exceeds the minimum, specific instruction has been given concerning
ways of supplementing or deepening the Course of Study contents according
to the school's or students' actual situation.
From the standpoint of compulsory education requirements, the three years
of science education in junior high school must reliably impart to all
students a basic understanding and knowledge of the rudiments of science.
To make certain that each student accomplishes that goal, it is necessary
to try a wide variety of teaching and learning methods. It is important
to employ teaching methods tailored to the needs of individual students
in order to ensure that all students reach the levels established as the
goals of education.
The revised Course of Study allows for flexibility in determining the number
of hours of science instruction for third year students. A minimum of three
hours per week is specified, but the Course of Study allows science education
for third year students to be conducted within a suitable range of three
to four hours.
Accordingly, if three hours a week are devoted to science education for
the first, second and third year students, the number of hours actually
spent on science will conform to the number specified in the "Contents"
subsection of the Course of Study. On the other hand, if the number of
hours of instruction for third year students is set at the upper limit
of four hours per week, it means there will be one more hour than the specified
number. That additional hour would make it possible to conduct the instruction
at a more relaxed pace. It could also make it possible to teach science
in all three years in a more relaxed manner.
The extra hour of science education per week could be devoted to supplementary
instruction for those students who have not attained the specified objectives.
For those student who have attained the objectives, it could be used to
deepen their understanding of the subject matter by giving them more advanced
materials to study. In either case, this would be done within the scope
of the subject matter specified in the "Contents" subsection
of the Course of Study.
(7)In the elective science course for third year students, provision has
been made for the use of various learning activities according to the particular
characteristics of the students. The "Contents" subsection of
the Course of Study has been organized so that schools can made innovative
use of research on individual themes, outdoor observation and other activities.
The revised Course of Study provides for an elective science course in
order to emphasize learning activities that maximize the individuality
and creativity of the students. This takes into account the fact that students
in junior high school are going through a period when their abilities,
aptitudes and interests diversify considerably.
It is taken for granted that science will be taught in such a way that
all students will gain a fundamental understanding and knowledge of the
basics of this discipline. At the same time, it is also essential to take
into consideration students who have a strong interest in or a special
aptitude for science. Providing opportunities to encourage them and to
fulfill their aspirations is an important part of offering education that
will enable them to make the most of their individual talents and creativity.
The time allowed for this elective science course is intended to enable
the students to display their own character and abilities to the fullest
extent while pursuing a series of study activities. As typified by a research
project on a particular theme, these activities include the selection of
a research topic, planning and selection of a suitable approach, gathering
of information, continuous observation and performance of experiments,
processing and analysis of the results and organization and presentation
of the findings.
Outdoor observation provides an opportunity for learning through direct
contact with nature, which is effective in enabling students to experience
the rigors, beauty, subtleties and grandeur of nature. In addition, it
also fosters the abilities and desire to study natural phenomena continuously
and from various perspectives.
4. Objectives and Contents of New Junior High School Course of Study
The new Course of Study sets the following curriculum objectives for junior
high school science education, which have been determined in consideration
of the Education Curriculum Council's report, consistency among the educational
objectives for elementary, junior high and high schools, and the relationship
with the aims of each science subject taught in junior high school.
(1) To foster a stronger interest in and enthusiasm about nature
(2) To develop the ability and desire to pursue scientific studies through observation and experimentation
(3) To promote a better understanding of natural things and phenomena
(4) To develop scientific perspectives and ways of thinking
The aims of science education are, of course, as follows:
<1> To acquire the methods for studying nature through a process that emphasizes scientific inquiry
<2> To obtain scientific knowledge and form basic intellectual concepts
<3> To develop a scientific attitude and a view of nature
Objectives (1) and (4) above correspond to aim <3>, objective (2)
corresponds to aim <1> and objective (3) corresponds to aim <2>.
The new Course of Study includes the fostering of a stronger interest in
nature as one of the objectives. There are several reasons why this aspect
concerning human emotion or volition is mentioned. One reason is related
to the way in which science education is all too often conducted. As noted
earlier, there is a general tendency for teachers to conduct science classes
as a one-way transmission of knowledge, with the result that students develop
a passive attitude, shun nature and have no interest in science. Consequently,
there is a need to foster through ordinary learning activities a stronger
interest in, intellectual excitement over and curiosity about nature and
an attitude of wanting to study nature. As a result, students will be motivated
to study on their own and will develop a desire to educate themselves.
This is a point that must be emphasized in school education and in connection
with the teaching methods employed, in view of the trend toward a society
where life-long education is pursued.
The new Course of Study for junior high school science education consists
of three sections: 1. Curriculum Objectives, 2. Objectives and Contents
of Each Subject, and 3. Preparation of Teaching Plans and Treatment of
Contents. The second section comprises three subsections: (1) Subject Objectives,
(2) Contents and (3) Treatment of Contents. As in previous years, four
objectives have been established for each subject. This time the relationship
between the curriculum objectives and the contents has been described more
clearly, taking into account the compatibility with the curriculum objectives,
the connection with the basis for evaluation and other factors. The first
objective concerns scientific thought and methods of study, the second
and third objectives pertain to skills and cognition and the fourth objective
has to do with attitudinal aspects.
The second subsection, "Contents," is organized in the same manner
as in the past and consists of four parts: "Major Topics," "Aims
of Major Topics," "Intermediate Topics," and "Minor
Topics."
The part dealing with the "Aims of Major Topics" describes aspects
related to the formation of concepts, understanding, perspectives and ways
of thinking in connection with the contents treated under the corresponding
major topics. For instance, the "Aims of Major Topics" are described
using such language as "to promote deeper knowledge of ....,"
"to foster understanding of ....," and "to cultivate perspectives
of and ways of thinking about ...." More specifically, the aims are
described as follows: "to foster understanding of .... through observation
and experimentation concerning familiar ...., to acquire ...., to promote
deeper knowledge of ...., to cultivate perspectives of and ways of thinking
about ...., and to encourage a comprehensive consideration of ...."
The specific items intended to facilitate attainment of the aims of major
topics are given under the "Minor Topics." In the newly revised
Course of Study, the "Minor Topics" subsection is described in
terms of study approaches and behavior, such as "to discover natural
laws by carrying out observations and experiments concerning ....,"
or "to grasp the correlation between ...." However, this is apt
to be misinterpreted as indicating that all teachers need to do in teaching
science is to simply conduct observations and experiments. The "Minor
Topics" subsection emphasizes that inquiries and investigations must
also ultimately lead to an understanding of the basic concepts, principles
and laws underlying the "Aims of Major Topics." The substance
and methods leading to cognitive attainment of the "Aims of Major
Topics" can be summed up in the conduct of observations and experiments
as mentioned in the "Minor Topics" subsection.
The foregoing discussion has explained the portion of the newly revised
Course of Study that pertains to junior high school science education.
The author is aware of the fact that there are some people who feel uneasy
about science education in Japan because the revised Course of Study provides
for a subject dealing with life science in the lower grades of elementary
school in place of the present science course and reduces the number of
hours devoted to science in junior high school. It is intended that the
life science course will include a wide range of activities which will
impart to pupils the experience and understanding needed in learning the
principles of science. Therefore, it is expected to make positive, and
not negative, contributions to the furtherance of science education.
The ample experience which had been acquired up to three or fourth grade
provided the essential foundations for studying science.
The present Course of Study specifies four hours per week of science instruction.
Under the new curriculum, greater flexibility has been provided so that
schools may devote three, four, or five hours a week to science. Schools
may choose to offer four hours of science instruction per week, which is
the upper limit for compulsory science education. In addition, they may
also offer an additional hour of an elective science subject, making a
total of five hours, which is more than under the present Course of Study.
The question of whether or not sufficient study of science is provided
ultimately boils down to whether or not schools present science to the
students in an appealing and interesting manner.
There are three excuses that are always given for not conducting (or not
wanting to conduct) observations and experiments. One is that such experiments
have already been performed. A second is that the teacher is too busy.
The third excuse is inadequate equipment or facilities due to budget limitations.
If teachers use these excuses to justify the teaching of science by simply
trying to inject factual knowledge into students' heads, the number of
students who complete science courses is likely to decline. In addition,
the number of students who choose to study science in high school is also
likely to continue to decrease.
If there are concerns about the future of science and technology in Japan,
greater reflection should be given to teaching and learning methodologies,
the way in which education is conducted, student evaluation methods and
the manner of conducting university entrance examinations. It would appear
to this writer that these are areas which are not receiving sufficient
consideration. There is a tendency to shift responsibility to others because
one dislikes having people discuss matters pertaining to one's own area.
Japan has become one of the world's leading countries in science and technology
and is now competing with other nations of the world for leadership in
various fields of advanced technology. In addition, the percentage of students
who go on to obtain a higher education has increased dramatically. In this
mature society, with its advanced levels of science and technology, one
large mission of paramount importance is to make true improvements to the
country's institutions of higher education. There is an urgent need today
to improve qualitatively the way in which scientific research and science
education are conducted in Japanese universities and research institutes.
In America, Great Britain and other countries, the fullness of the science
education offered at the university and upper secondary school levels compensates
for weaknesses in the science education provided at the elementary and
middle school levels. In contrast, it would appear to the author that the
weaknesses of Japan's institutions of higher education place unreasonable
requests and excessive expectations on the science education that is provided
at the elementary and middle school levels.
References
(1) Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, The Course of Study, Tokyo
1989.
(2) Bork, Alfred, Personal Computers for Education, Harper & Row, Publishers,
New York, 1985.
(3) Unesco, Unesco handbook for science teachers, Heineman, London, 1980.
(4) Hurt, P.D., New Directions in Teaching Secondary
School Science, Rand McNally & Company, New York, 1969.
(Author's Note: This paper is originally written for RECSAM Journal and published in 1990)
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